Electrical

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See also Physics#Electromagnetism, Hardware, Computing, Living




Physics Videos by Eugene Khutoryansky:



  • E=Pt
    • Energy = power x time
  • Q=It
    • Charge = current (Amps) x time (Seconds)


  • Rt (series) = R1 + R2 + R3 ...
  • Rt (parallel x2) = R1xR2 / R1+R2
  • Rt (parallel x2+) = 1 / 1/Ra + 1/R2 + 1/R3
  • v=f x λ
    • Velocity = frequency x wavelength (lambda)





  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb - a fundamental unit of electrical charge, and is also the SI derived unit of electric charge (symbol: Q or q). It is equal to the charge of approximately 6.241×1018 electrons. Its SI definition is the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second. One coulomb is also the amount of excess charge on a capacitor of one farad charged to a potential difference of one volt.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampère's_force_law - In magnetostatics, the force of attraction or repulsion between two current-carrying wires (see first figure below) is often called Ampère's force law. The physical origin of this force is that each wire generates a magnetic field, following the Biot–Savart law, and the other wire experiences a magnetic force as a consequence, following the Lorentz force law.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity) - material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely; very little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an electric field. This contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric - an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in an electrical conductor but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced in the direction of the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field. The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials. Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, and cell biophysics.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance - the property of a conductor by which a change in current flowing through it "induces" (creates) a voltage (electromotive force) in both the conductor itself (self-inductance) and in any nearby conductors (mutual inductance).
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday's_law_of_induction - a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and solenoids. The Maxwell–Faraday equation is a generalization of Faraday's law, and is listed as one of Maxwell's equations.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farad - he SI derived unit of electrical capacitance, the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. It is named after the English physicist Michael Faraday.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivity - In electromagnetism, absolute permittivity, often simply called permittivity, usually denoted by the Greek letter ε (epsilon), is the measure of resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a particular medium. More specifically, permittivity describes the amount of charge needed to generate one unit of electric flux in a particular medium. Accordingly, a charge will yield more electric flux in a medium with low permittivity than in a medium with high permittivity. Thus, permittivity is the measure of a material's ability to resist an electric field, not its ability to ‘permit’ it (as the name ‘permittivity’ might seem to suggest).

The SI unit for permittivity is farad per meter (F/m or F·m−1).

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_permittivity - a material is its (absolute) permittivity expressed as a ratio relative to the permittivity of vacuum. Permittivity is a material property that affects the Coulomb force between two point charges in the material. Relative permittivity is the factor by which the electric field between the charges is decreased relative to vacuum. Likewise, relative permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric, compared with a similar capacitor that has vacuum as its dielectric. Relative permittivity is also commonly known as dielectric constant, a term deprecated in physics and engineering as well as in chemistry.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current - the unidirectional flow of electric charge. A battery is a good example of a DC power supply. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or voltage. Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a rectifier, which contains electronic elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in one direction. Direct current may be converted into alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator set. Direct current is used to charge batteries and as power supply for electronic systems. Very large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of aluminum and other electrochemical processes. It is also used for some railways, especially in urban areas. High-voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current power grids.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current - an electric current which periodically reverses direction, in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when they plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket. A common source of DC power is a battery cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or voltage. The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. These types of alternating current carry information such as sound (audio) or images (video) sometimes carried by modulation of an AC carrier signal. These currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in power transmission.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_power - the rate of flow of energy past a given point of the circuit. In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is known as active power (more commonly called real power to avoid ambiguity especially in discussions of loads with non-sinusoidal currents). The portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inrush_current - input surge current or switch-on surge is the maximal instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on. Alternating-current electric motors and transformers may draw several times their normal full-load current when first energized, for a few cycles of the input waveform. Power converters also often have inrush currents much higher than their steady-state currents, due to the charging current of the input capacitance. The selection of overcurrent-protection devices such as fuses and circuit breakers is made more complicated when high inrush currents must be tolerated. The overcurrent protection must react quickly to overload or short-circuit faults but must not interrupt the circuit when the (usually harmless) inrush current flows.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading_and_lagging_current - phenomena that occur as a result of alternating current. In a circuit with alternating current, the value of voltage and current vary sinusoidally. In these types of circuits, the terms lead, lag, or in phase are used to describe current with reference to voltage. Current is in phase with voltage when there is no phase shift between the sinusoids describing their time varying behavior. This generally occurs when the load drawing the current is resistive. In electric power flow, it is important to know whether current is leading or lagging because it can be used to describe how much circulating reactive power flow is occurring in the system, and whether that power is inductive or capacitative. It can also play an important role in the operation of three-phase power systems.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor - of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of −1 to 1. A power factor of less than one means that the voltage and current waveforms are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of the two waveforms (V × I). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which then flows back towards the source, which is normally considered the generator.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor. Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff's_circuit_laws - are two equalities that deal with the current and potential difference (commonly known as voltage) in the lumped element model of electrical circuits. They were first described in 1845 by German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. This generalized the work of Georg Ohm and preceded the work of James Clerk Maxwell. Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws. Both of Kirchhoff's laws can be understood as corollaries of Maxwell's equations in the low-frequency limit. They are accurate for DC circuits, and for AC circuits at frequencies where the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are very large compared to the circuits.

Current law = At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node

Voltate law = The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed network is zero.




  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance - The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty to pass an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S). An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance - the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is applied. The term complex impedance may be used interchangeably. Quantitatively, the impedance of a two-terminal circuit element is the ratio of the complex representation of a sinusoidal voltage between its terminals to the complex representation of the current flowing through it. In general, it depends upon the frequency of the sinusoidal voltage. Impedance is a complex number, with the same units as resistance, for which the SI unit is the ohm (Ω). Its symbol is usually Z, and it may be represented by writing its magnitude and phase in the form |Z|∠θ. However, cartesian complex number representation is often more powerful for circuit analysis purposes. The reciprocal of impedance is admittance, whose SI unit is the siemens, formerly called mho


Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike resistance, which has only magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct current (DC), there is no distinction between impedance and resistance; the latter can be thought of as impedance with zero phase angle. The notion of impedance is useful for performing AC analysis of electrical networks, because it allows relating sinusoidal voltages and currents by a simple linear law. In multiple port networks, the two-terminal definition of impedance is inadequate, but the complex voltages at the ports and the currents flowing through them are still linearly related by the impedance matrix.


  • Z = sqr rt of (resistance² x impedence²)
    • Impedance (Z) = the square root of (resistance squared plus reactance squared).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_reactance - the opposition of a circuit element to a change in current or voltage, due to that element's inductance or capacitance. The notion of reactance is similar to electrical resistance, but it differs in several respects. In phasor analysis, reactance is used to compute amplitude and phase changes of sinusoidal alternating current going through a circuit element. It is denoted by the symbol X. An ideal resistor has zero reactance, whereas ideal inductors and capacitors have zero resistance – that is, respond to current only by reactance. The magnitude of the reactance of an inductor rises in proportion to a rise in frequency, while the magnitude of the reactance of a capacitor decreases in proportion to a rise in frequency. As frequency goes up, inductive reactance also goes up and capacitive reactance goes down.

Reactance = resistance to alternating current flow, depends on frequency.

Impedence of pure resistor = resistance, impedence of pure capacitor = reactance

Reactence of capacitor = 1/(2pie x f x c)

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susceptance - the imaginary part of admittance, where the real part is conductance. The inverse of admittance is impedance, where the imaginary part is reactance and the real part is resistance. In SI units, susceptance is measured in siemens. Oliver Heaviside first defined this property in June 1887.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_element - conceptual abstractions representing idealized electrical components, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, used in the analysis of electrical networks. All electrical networks can be analyzed as multiple electrical elements interconnected by wires. Where the elements roughly correspond to real components the representation can be in the form of a schematic diagram or circuit diagram. This is called a lumped element circuit model. In other cases infinitesimal elements are used to model the network in a distributed element model.

These ideal electrical elements represent real, physical electrical or electronic components but they do not exist physically and they are assumed to have ideal properties, while actual electrical components have less than ideal properties, a degree of uncertainty in their values and some degree of nonlinearity. To model the nonideal behavior of a real circuit component may require a combination of multiple ideal electrical elements in order to approximate its function. For example, an inductor circuit element is assumed to have inductance but no resistance or capacitance, while a real inductor, a coil of wire, has some resistance in addition to its inductance. This may be modeled by an ideal inductance element in series with a resistance.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_junction - may be either a thermoelectricity junction, a metal–semiconductor junction or a p–n junction (p-type semiconductor–n-type semiconductor junction). Junctions are either rectifying or non-rectifying. Non-rectifying junctions are called ohmic contacts. Electronic components employing rectifying junctions include p–n diodes, Schottky diodes and bipolar junction transistors.



  • YouTube: How a Surge Protector Works (Metal Oxide Varistor) - How a common surge strip works explained by GE Global Research Engineer Bill Morris. The GEMOV surge suppressor was developed first in 1973 by John D. Harnden Jr., François Martzloff, and William G. Morris in Schenectady, NY. This revolutionized power control for all computers and semiconductor devices. The device was put into production by 1976. Hundreds of millions were produced within a few years. Morris investigated the relationship of crystal size to volts and resistance. Work started with the Thyristor and Zener Diode (varistor works in both polarities).



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer - a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-electromotive_force - abbreviated counter EMF or simply CEMF, also known as back electromotive force (or back EMF), is the electromotive force or "voltage" that opposes the change in current which induced it. CEMF is the EMF caused by magnetic induction (see Faraday's law of induction, electromagnetic induction, Lenz's Law).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biot–Savart_law - an equation describing the magnetic field generated by a stationary electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The Biot–Savart law is fundamental to magnetostatics, playing a similar role to Coulomb's law in electrostatics. When magnetostatics does not apply, the Biot–Savart law should be replaced by Jefimenko's equations. The law is valid in the magnetostatic approximation, and is consistent with both Ampère's circuital law and Gauss's law for magnetism. It is named after Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart who discovered this relationship in 1820.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varistor - an electronic component with an electrical resistance that varies with the applied voltage. Also known as a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), it has a nonlinear, non-ohmic current–voltage characteristic that is similar to that of a diode. In contrast to a diode however, it has the same characteristic for both directions of traversing current. At low voltage it has a high electrical resistance which decreases as the voltage is raised. Varistors are used as control or compensation elements in circuits either to provide optimal operating conditions or to protect against excessive transient voltages. When used as protection devices, they shunt the current created by the excessive voltage away from sensitive components when triggered. The name varistor is a portmanteau of varying resistor. The term is only used for non-ohmic varying resistors. Variable resistors, such as the potentiometer and the rheostat, have ohmic characteristics.



  • WaveDrom is Free and Open Source online digital timing diagram (waveform) rendering engine that uses javascript, HTML5 and SVG to convert WaveJSON input text description into SVG vector graphics. WaveJSON is an application of the JSON format. The purpose of WaveJSON is to provide a compact exchange format for digital timing diagrams utilized by digital HW / IC engineers.




  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthing_system - or grounding system connects specific parts of that installation with the Earth's conductive surface for safety and functional purposes. The point of reference is the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the installation. Regulations for earthing systems vary considerably among countries, though many follow the recommendations of the International Electrotechnical Commission. Regulations may identify special cases for earthing in mines, in patient care areas, or in hazardous areas of industrial plants.

In addition to electric power systems, other systems may require grounding for safety or function. Tall structures may have lightning rods as part of a system to protect them from lightning strikes. Telegraph lines may use the Earth as one conductor of a circuit, saving the cost of installation of a return wire over a long circuit. Radio antennas may require particular grounding for operation, as well as to control static electricity and provide lightning protection.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overcurrent - or excess current is a situation where a larger than intended electric current exists through a conductor, leading to excessive generation of heat, and the risk of fire or damage to equipment. Possible causes for overcurrent include short circuits, excessive load, incorrect design, or a ground fault. Fuses, circuit breakers, temperature sensors and current limiters are commonly used protection mechanisms to control the risks of overcurrent.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker - an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_leakage_circuit_breaker - a safety device used in electrical installations with high Earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected. Once widely used, more recent installations instead use residual current circuit breakers which instead detect leakage current directly.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual-current_device - RCD, or residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB), is a device that instantly breaks an electric circuit to prevent serious harm from an ongoing electric shock. Injury may still occur in some cases, for example if a human falls after receiving a shock.


Generation




  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation - also distributed energy, on-site generation (OSG) or district/decentralized energy is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of small, grid-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources (DER). Conventional power stations, such as coal-fired, gas and nuclear powered plants, as well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations, are centralized and often require electric energy to be transmitted over long distances. By contrast, DER systems are decentralized, modular and more flexible technologies, that are located close to the load they serve, albeit having capacities of only 10 megawatts (MW) or less. These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components; in this instance they are referred to as hybrid power systems.

DER systems typically use renewable energy sources, including small hydro, biomass, biogas, solar power, wind power, and geothermal power, and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system. A grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system, and is often called a distributed energy storage system (DESS). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart grid. Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply.



Components


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics) - the point at which a conductor from an electrical component, device or network comes to an end and provides a point of connection to external circuits. A terminal may simply be the end of a wire or it may be fitted with a connector or fastener. In network analysis, terminal means a point at which connections can be made to a network in theory and does not necessarily refer to any real physical object. In this context, especially in older documents, it is sometimes called a pole.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_ballast - a device placed in line with the load to limit the amount of current in an electrical circuit. It may be a fixed or variable resistor. Ballasts vary greatly in complexity. They may be as simple as a resistor, inductor or capacitor (or a combination of these) wired in series with the lamp; or as complex as the electronic ballasts used in compact fluorescent lamps and high-intensity discharge lamps.



  • Two-terminal non-linear circuit elements.svg - Relations between the four fundamental electronic variables (voltage, charge, current, flux) and devices that implement these relations (resistor, capacitor, inductor, memristor).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor - also called a coil, choke or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction. According to Lenz's law, the direction of induced electromotive force (e.m.f.) opposes the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors oppose any changes in current through them.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of inductance is the henry (H) named for 19th century American scientist Joseph Henry. In the measurement of magnetic circuits, it is equivalent to weber/ampere. Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH (10−6 H) to 20 H. Many inductors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits. Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor - layers of insulators and conductors. AC will jump the gap because of inductance. smaller caps block lower frequencies because bass frequencies are closer to DC.





  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohmic_contact - a non-rectifying electrical junction: a junction between two conductors that has a linear current–voltage (I-V) curve as with Ohm's law. Low resistance ohmic contacts are used to allow charge to flow easily in both directions between the two conductors, without blocking due to rectification or excess power dissipation due to voltage thresholds.

By contrast, a junction or contact that does not demonstrate a linear I-V curve is called non-ohmic. Non-ohmic contacts come in a number of forms (p–n junction, Schottky barrier, rectifying heterojunction, breakdown junction, etc.).

Generally the term "ohmic contact" implicitly refers to an ohmic contact of a metal to a semiconductor, where achieving ohmic behaviour is possible but requires careful technique. Metal–metal ohmic contacts are relatively simpler to make, by ensuring direct contact between the metals without intervening layers of insulating contamination or oxidation; various techniques are used to create ohmic metal-metal junctions (soldering, welding, crimping, deposition, electroplating, etc.). This article focuses on metal–semiconductor ohmic contacts.

Low-resistance, stable ohmic contacts to semiconductors are critical for the performance and reliability of semiconductor devices, and their preparation and characterization are major efforts in circuit fabrication. Poorly prepared junctions to semiconductors can easily show rectifying behaviour by causing depletion of the semiconductor near the junction, rendering the device useless by blocking the flow of charge between those devices and the external circuitry. Ohmic contacts to semiconductors are typically constructed by depositing thin metal films of a carefully chosen composition, possibly followed by annealing to alter the semiconductor–metal bond.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor - A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor – such as copper, gold etc. – and an insulator, such as glass. Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behavior opposite to that of a metal. Their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction of impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure. Where two differently-doped regions exist in the same crystal, a semiconductor junction is created. The behavior of charge carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device - electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most applications. They use electronic conduction in the solid state as opposed to the gaseous state or thermionic emission in a high vacuum. Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as integrated circuits (ICs), which consist of a number—from a few (as low as two) to billions—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor substrate, or wafer.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P–n_junction - a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an excess of electrons in the outer shells of the electrically neutral atoms there. This allows electrical current to pass through the junction only in one direction. The p-n junction is created by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that would severely inhibit its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.

p–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two p–n junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–p; while a diode can be made from a single p-n junction. A Schottky junction is a special case of a p–n junction, where metal serves the role of the p-type semiconductor.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_region - also called depletion layer, depletion zone, junction region, space charge region or space charge layer, is an insulating region within a conductive, doped semiconductor material where the mobile charge carriers have been diffused away, or have been forced away by an electric field. The only elements left in the depletion region are ionized donor or acceptor impurities.

The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a conducting region by removal of all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current. Understanding the depletion region is key to explaining modern semiconductor electronics: diodes, bipolar junction transistors, field-effect transistors, and variable capacitance diodes all rely on depletion region phenomena.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode - a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other materials such as selenium and germanium are sometimes used.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_detector - an electronic component used to rectify radio frequency alternating current. The "asymmetric conduction" of crystals was discovered in 1874 by Karl Ferdinand Braun and the first crystal detectors were used in wireless research by Braun and Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1894. Development of these detectors began to significantly advance around 1904 when Henry H. C. Dunwoody and G. W. Pickard commenced research on the performance of many crystalline and metallic materials as detectors. Crystal detectors became very commonly used in early 20th century wireless receivers and crystal radios. The crystal detector was the first type of semiconductor diode, and in fact, one of the first semiconductor electronic devices (after photoconductors).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diode - a particular type of diode that, unlike a normal one, allows current to flow not only from its anode to its cathode, but also in the reverse direction, when the Zener voltage is reached. Zener diodes have a highly doped p-n junction. Normal diodes will also break down with a reverse voltage but the voltage and sharpness of the knee are not as well defined as for a Zener diode. Also normal diodes are not designed to operate in the breakdown region, but Zener diodes can reliably operate in this region.

The device was named after Clarence Melvin Zener, who discovered the Zener effect. Zener reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum tunnelling caused by a high-strength electric field. However, many diodes described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown. Both breakdown types are used in Zener diodes with the Zener effect predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdown above. Zener diodes are widely used in electronic equipment of all kinds and are one of the basic building blocks of electronic circuits. They are used to generate low power stabilized supply rails from a higher voltage and to provide reference voltages for circuits, especially stabilized power supplies. They are also used to protect circuits from overvoltage, especially electrostatic discharge (ESD).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P–n_diode - a type of semiconductor diode based upon the p–n junction. The diode conducts current in only one direction, and it is made by joining a p-type semiconducting layer to an n-type semiconducting layer. Semiconductor diodes have multiple uses including rectification of alternating current to direct current, detection of radio signals, emitting light and detecting light.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor - a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor - bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron and hole charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier. For their operation, BJTs use two junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type. BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual components, or fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers. The basic function of a BJT is to amplify current. This allows BJTs to be used as amplifiers or switches, giving them wide applicability in electronic equipment, including computers, televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, industrial control, and radio transmitters.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor - a transistor that uses an electric field to control the electrical behaviour of the device. FETs are also known as unipolar transistors since they involve single-carrier-type operation. Many different implementations of field effect transistors exist. Field effect transistors generally display very high input impedance at low frequencies. The conductivity between the drain and source terminals is controlled by an electric field in the device, which is generated by the voltage difference between the body and the gate of the device.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET - metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals, the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET is often connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in electrical diagrams. The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93semiconductor_junction - a type of junction in which a metal comes in close contact with a semiconductor material. It is the oldest practical semiconductor device. M–S junctions can either be rectifying or non-rectifying. The rectifying metal–semiconductor junction forms a Schottky barrier, making a device known as a Schottky diode, while the non-rectifying junction is called an ohmic contact. (In contrast, a rectifying semiconductor–semiconductor junction, the most common semiconductor device today, is known as a p–n junction.)

Metal–semiconductor junctions are crucial to the operation of all semiconductor devices. Usually an ohmic contact is desired, so that electrical charge can be conducted easily between the active region of a transistor and the external circuitry. Occasionally however a Schottky barrier is useful, as in Schottky diodes, Schottky transistors, and metal–semiconductor field effect transistors.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESFET - stands for metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor. It is quite similar to a JFET in construction and terminology. The difference is that instead of using a p-n junction for a gate, a Schottky (metal-semiconductor) junction is used. MESFETs are usually constructed in compound semiconductor technologies lacking high quality surface passivation such as GaAs, InP, or SiC, and are faster but more expensive than silicon-based JFETs or MOSFETs. Production MESFETs are operated up to approximately 45 GHz, and are commonly used for microwave frequency communications and radar. The first MESFETs were developed in 1966, and a year later their extremely high frequency RF microwave performance was demonstrated.


Supply and conversion

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_electronics - the application of solid-state electronics to the control and conversion of electric power. The first high power electronic devices were mercury-arc valves. In modern systems the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching devices such as diodes, thyristors and transistors, pioneered by R. D. Middlebrook and others beginning in the 1950s. In contrast to electronic systems concerned with transmission and processing of signals and data, in power electronics substantial amounts of electrical energy are processed.

The power conversion systems can be classified according to the type of the input and output power:

  • AC to DC (rectifier)
  • DC to AC (inverter)
  • DC to DC (DC-to-DC converter)
  • AC to AC (AC-to-AC converter)





  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier - an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple_(electrical) - specifically ripple voltage) in electronics is the residual periodic variation of the DC voltage within a power supply which has been derived from an alternating current (AC) source. This ripple is due to incomplete suppression of the alternating waveform after rectification. Ripple voltage originates as the output of a rectifier or from generation and commutation of DC power. Ripple (specifically ripple current or surge current) may also refer to the pulsed current consumption of non-linear devices like capacitor-input rectifiers. Ripple is wasted power, and has many undesirable effects in a DC circuit: it heats components, causes noise and distortion, and may cause digital circuits to operate improperly. Ripple may be reduced by an electronic filter, and eliminated by a voltage regulator.

As well as these time-varying phenomena, there is a frequency domain ripple that arises in some classes of filter and other signal processing networks. In this case the periodic variation is a variation in the insertion loss of the network against increasing frequency. The variation may not be strictly linearly periodic. In this meaning also, ripple is usually to be considered an incidental effect, its existence being a compromise between the amount of ripple and other design parameters.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC-to-DC_converter - an electronic circuit or electromechanical device that converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a type of electric power converter. Power levels range from very low (small batteries) to very high (high-voltage power transmission).



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_pump - a kind of DC to DC converter that uses capacitors for energetic charge storage to raise or lower voltage. Charge-pump circuits are capable of high efficiencies, sometimes as high as 90–95%, while being electrically simple circuits.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_converter - step-down converter, is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps down voltage (while stepping up current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) typically containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and a transistor, although modern buck converters frequently replace the diode with a second transistor used for synchronous rectification) and at least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter). Switching converters (such as buck converters) provide much greater power efficiency as DC-to-DC converters than linear regulators, which are simpler circuits that lower voltages by dissipating power as heat, but do not step up output current.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter - step-up converter, is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up voltage (while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck–boost_converter - a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is equivalent to a flyback converter using a single inductor instead of a transformer. Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to almost zero; The inverting topology, and A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter, sometimes called a "four-switch buck-boost converter"


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line - a specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals, trunklines routing calls between telephone switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backfeeding - flow of electrical energy in the reverse direction from its normal flow. For example, backfeeding may occur when electrical power is injected into the local power grid from a source other than a utility company generator.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balun - for balanced to unbalanced, is an electrical device that converts between a balanced signal (two signals working against each other where ground is irrelevant) and an unbalanced signal (a single signal working against ground or pseudo-ground). A balun can take many forms and may include devices that also transform impedances but need not do so. Transformer baluns can also be used to connect lines of differing impedance. Sometimes, in the case of transformer baluns, they use magnetic coupling but need not do so. Common-mode chokes are also used as baluns and work by eliminating, rather than ignoring, common mode signals. A variation of this device is the unun, which transfers signal from one unbalanced line to another.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor–generator - an M–G set, is a device for converting electrical power to another form. Motor–generator sets are used to convert frequency, voltage, or phase of power. They may also be used to isolate electrical loads from the electrical power supply line. Large motor–generators were widely used to convert industrial amounts of power while smaller motor–generators (such as the one shown in the picture) were used to convert battery power to higher DC voltages. These motor-generators should not be confused with "motor generator", which is a term occasionally used to describe a portable generator powered by an internal combustion engine.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_inverter - an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source. A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.




Delivery

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_delivery - the process that goes from generation of electricity in the power station to the use by the consumer. The main processes in electricity delivery are, by order: Generation, Transmission, Distribution, Retailing


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid - an interconnected network for delivering electricity from producers to consumers. It consists of generating stations that produce electrical power, high voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers, and distribution lines that connect individual customers. Power stations may be located near a fuel source, at a dam site, or to take advantage of renewable energy sources, and are often located away from heavily populated areas. They are usually quite large to take advantage of economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission net. The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, until it reaches its wholesale customer (usually the company that owns the local electric power distribution network).



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_distribution - the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment or household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the subtransmission level.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busbar - a busbar (also bus bar, and sometimes misspelled as buss bar or bussbar) is a metallic strip or bar, typically housed inside switchgear, panel boards, and busway enclosures for local high current power distribution. They are also used to connect high voltage equipment at electrical switchyards, and low voltage equipment in battery banks. They are generally uninsulated, and have sufficient stiffness to be supported in air by insulated pillars. These features allow sufficient cooling of the conductors, and the ability to tap in at various points without creating a new joint.



Storage

See also Living#Fuel cell



  • Battery University - a free educational website offering hands-on battery information to engineers, educators, media, students and battery users alike. The tutorials evaluate the advantages and limitations of battery chemistries, advise on best battery choice and suggest ways to extend battery life.







UPG 12V 55Ah Sealed







  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery - EVB or traction battery is a battery used to power the propulsion of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Vehicle batteries are usually a secondary (rechargeable) battery. Traction batteries are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles.

Electric-vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries because they are designed to give power over sustained periods of time. Deep-cycle batteries are used instead of SLI batteries for these applications. Traction batteries must be designed with a high ampere-hour capacity. Batteries for electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, energy-to-weight ratio and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries reduce the weight of the vehicle and improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximal all-electric range of the vehicles. However, metal-air batteries have high specific energy because the cathode is provided by the surrounding oxygen in the air. Rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid ("flooded", deep-cycle, and VRLA), NiCd, nickel–metal hydride, lithium-ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less commonly, zinc–air and molten-salt batteries. The amount of electricity (i.e. electric charge) stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total energy often measured in watt hours.





Lead-acid

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead–acid_battery - invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté and is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.

As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead–acid batteries are widely used even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy densities. Large-format lead–acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems. For these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and reduce maintenance requirements. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-mat batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-regulated lead–acid) batteries.


Lithium

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_battery - are primary batteries that have lithium as an anode. These types of batteries are also referred to as lithium-metal batteries. They stand apart from other batteries in their high charge density (long life) and high cost per unit. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from 1.5 V (comparable to a zinc–carbon or alkaline battery) to about 3.7 V. Lithium batteries are widely used in portable consumer electronic devices, and in electric vehicles ranging from full sized vehicles to radio controlled toys.

Disposable primary lithium batteries must be distinguished from secondary lithium-ion and lithium-polymer, which are rechargeable batteries. Lithium is especially useful, because its ions can be arranged to move between the anode and the cathode, using an intercalated lithium compound as the cathode material but without using lithium metal as the anode material. Pure lithium will instantly react with water, or even moisture in the air; the lithium in lithium ion batteries is in a less reactive compound. Mistreatment during charging or discharging can cause outgassing of some of their contents, which can cause explosions or fire.


Lithium-ion

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery - or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in a non-rechargeable lithium battery. The electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics. They are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle and aerospace applications.





  • NKON - Wholesale in batteries, chargers and LED flashlights





4S (serial) config = 14.4V nominal:

  • 64 cells for 40Ah
  • 192 cells for 120Ah
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery - or more correctly lithium-ion polymer battery (abbreviated as LiPo, LIP, Li-poly, lithium-poly and others), is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of a liquid one. High conductivity semisolid (gel) polymers form this electrolyte. These batteries provide a higher specific energy than other lithium battery types and are being used in applications where weight is a critical feature - like tablet computers, cellular telephone handsets or radio-controlled aircraft.


Ultrabattery

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UltraBattery - a hybrid energy storage device invented by Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). UltraBattery combines ultracapacitor technology with lead-acid battery technology in a single cell with a common electrolyte.

Testing

BMS

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_management_system - any electronic system that manages a rechargeable battery (cell or battery pack), such as by protecting the battery from operating outside its Safe Operating Area, monitoring its state, calculating secondary data, reporting that data, controlling its environment, authenticating it and / or balancing it. A battery pack built together with a battery management system with an external communication data bus is a smart battery pack. A smart battery pack must be charged by a smart battery charger.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_balancing - and battery redistribution refer to techniques that maximize the capacity of a battery pack with multiple cells (usually in series) to make all of capacity available for use and increase each cell's longevity. A battery balancer or battery regulator is a device in a battery pack that performs battery balancing. Balancers are often found in lithium-ion battery packs for cell phones and laptop computers. They can also be found in battery electric vehicle battery packs. Typically, the individual cells in a battery have somewhat different capacities and may be at different levels of state of charge (SOC). This is due to manufacturing variances, assembly variances (e.g., cells from one production run mixed others), different histories experienced amongst the cells in a battery pack (e.g., charging/discharging, heat exposures, etc.) and must be accounted for to maximize life and service of the particular battery pack in use. Each b...tive and appropriate balancing, discharging during use must stop when the cell with the lowest capacity is empty (even though other cells aren't); this limits the energy that can be taken from and returned to the battery.

Without balancing, the smallest capacity cell is a problem, and potentially a serious one. It can be easily overcharged or over-discharged whilst cells with higher capacities are only partial charged. The balance circuit should arrange for higher capacity cells to fully charge/discharge, while smaller capacity cells are charged/discharged suitably—which will necessarily be rather different. In a properly balanced battery pack, the cell with the largest capacity will be filled without overcharging any other (i.e., weaker, smaller) cell, and it can be discharged in use without over-discharging any other cell. Battery balancing is done by transferring energy from or to individual cells, until the SOC of the cell with the lowest capacity is equal to the battery's SOC.


  • BMS chips options - A comparison of commercially available Integrated Circuits (ICs) for BMSs for large Li-Ion battery packs

Circuits

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupling_(electronics) - the desirable or undesirable transfer of energy from one medium, such as a metallic wire or an optical fiber, to another medium. Coupling is also the transfer of electrical energy from one circuit segment to another. For example, energy is transferred from a power source to an electrical load by means of conductive coupling, which may be either resistive or hard-wire.  An AC potential may be transferred from one circuit segment to another having a DC potential by use of a capacitor.  Electrical energy may be transferred from one circuit segment to another segment with different impedance by use of a transformer. This is known as impedance matching. These are examples of electrostatic and electrodynamic inductive coupling.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_coupling - two conductors are referred to as inductively coupled or magnetically coupled when they are configured such that a change in current through one wire induces a voltage across the ends of the other wire through electromagnetic induction. The amount of inductive coupling between two conductors is measured by their mutual inductance. The coupling between two wires can be increased by winding them into coils and placing them close together on a common axis, so the magnetic field of one coil passes through the other coil. Coupling can also be increased by a magnetic core of a ferromagnetic material like iron or ferrite in the coils, which increases the magnetic flux. The two coils may be physically contained in a single unit, as in the primary and secondary windings of a transformer, or may be separated. Coupling may be intentional or unintentional. Unintentional inductive coupling can cause signals from one circuit to be induced into a nearby circuit, this is called cross-talk, and is a form of electromagnetic interference.







  • https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Signals_and_Systems - This book is about the study of engineering signals and systems, from a discipline-neutral approach. It is a fundamental starting point in the field of engineering, and serves as the basic material that other advanced books in the engineering subject area are based. This book looks at the concepts of systems, serving as an introduction to systems theory. Also, this book examines signals, and the way that signals interact with physical systems. While this book strives to be discipline-neutral, it currently is focused strongly on electrical engineering concepts. It is hoped that this book will be expanded to include information from other disciplines as well.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_isolation - a principle of isolating functional sections of electrical systems to prevent current flow; no direct conduction path is permitted. Energy or information can still be exchanged between the sections by other means, such as capacitance, induction or electromagnetic waves, or by optical, acoustic or mechanical means. Galvanic isolation is used where two or more electric circuits must communicate, but their grounds may be at different potentials. It is an effective method of breaking ground loops by preventing unwanted current from flowing between two units sharing a ground conductor. Galvanic isolation is also used for safety, preventing accidental current from reaching ground through a person's body.

Wiring

Shielding

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_shielding - the practice of reducing the electromagnetic field in a space by blocking the field with barriers made of conductive or magnetic materials. Shielding is typically applied to enclosures to isolate electrical devices from their surroundings, and to cables to isolate wires from the environment through which the cable runs. Electromagnetic shielding that blocks radio frequency electromagnetic radiation is also known as RF shielding.

The shielding can reduce the coupling of radio waves, electromagnetic fields and electrostatic fields. A conductive enclosure used to block electrostatic fields is also known as a Faraday cage. The amount of reduction depends very much upon the material used, its thickness, the size of the shielded volume and the frequency of the fields of interest and the size, shape and orientation of apertures in a shield to an incident electromagnetic field.


  • YouTube: Pigtail Demo - This video explains why pigtailed shield connections can cause shielded I/O cables to radiate and potentially fail EMI.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference - also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or conduction. The disturbance may degrade the performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the case of a data path, these effects can range from an increase in error rate to a total loss of the data. Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages that can cause EMI: ignition systems, cellular network of mobile phones, lightning, solar flares, and auroras (Northern/Southern Lights). EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can also affect mobile phones, FM radios, and televisions, as well as observations for radio astronomy. EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic warfare.


  1. Interference that appears on both signal leads (signal and circuit return), or the terminals of a measuring circuit, and ground.
  2. A form of coherent interference that affects two or more elements of a network in a similar manner (i.e., highly coupled) as distinct from locally generated noise or interference that is statistically independent between pairs of network elements.




  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_(electronics) - an inductor used to block higher-frequency alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit, while passing lower-frequency or direct current (DC). A choke usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often wound on a magnetic core, although some consist of a doughnut-shaped "bead" of ferrite material strung on a wire. The choke's impedance increases with frequency. Its low electrical resistance passes both AC and DC with little power loss, but its reactance limits the amount of AC passed. The name comes from blocking—"choking"—high frequencies while passing low frequencies. It is a functional name; the name "choke" is used if an inductor is used for blocking or decoupling higher frequencies, but is simply called an "inductor" if used in electronic filters or tuned circuits. Inductors designed for use as chokes are usually distinguished by not having the low-loss construction (high Q factor) required in inductors used in tuned circuits and filtering applications.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_bead - or ferrite choke is a passive electric component that suppresses high frequency noise in electronic circuits. It is a specific type of electronic choke. Ferrite beads employ high frequency current dissipation in a ferrite ceramic to build high frequency noise suppression devices. Ferrite beads may also be called blocks, cores, rings, EMI filters, or chokes.[

Amplifier

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier - electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). An amplifier uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.

An amplifier can either be a separate piece of equipment or an electrical circuit contained within another device. Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers are widely used in almost all electronic equipment. Amplifiers can be categorized in different ways. One is by the frequency of the electronic signal being amplified. For example, audio amplifiers amplify signals in the audio (sound) range of less than 20 kHz, RF amplifiers amplify frequencies in the radio frequency range between 20 kHz and 300 GHz, and servo amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers may work with very low frequencies down to direct current. Amplifiers can also be categorized by their physical placement in the signal chain; a preamplifier may precede other signal processing stages, for example. [4] The first practical electrical device which could amplify was the triode vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, which led to the first amplifiers around 1912.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-loop_gain - an amplifier is the gain obtained when no overall feedback is used in the circuit. Open loop gain, in some amplifiers, can be exceedingly high. An ideal operational amplifier has infinite open-loop gain. Typically an op-amp may have a maximal open-loop gain of around 10^5. The very high open-loop gain of the op-amp allows a wide range of feedback levels to be applied to achieve the desired performance. Normally, feedback is applied around an amplifier with high open loop gain so that the effective gain circuit is defined and kept to a desired figure.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_amplifier - a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage common to the two inputs. It is an analog circuit with two inputs and one output in which the output is ideally proportional to the difference between the two voltages.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier - often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to perform mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear, and frequency-dependent circuits.

The popularity of the op-amp as a building block in analog circuits is due to its versatility. By using negative feedback, the characteristics of an op-amp circuit, its gain, input and output impedance, bandwidth etc. are determined by external components and have little dependence on temperature coefficients or manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however, some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over US$100 in small quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as components or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier_applications - A non-ideal operational amplifier's equivalent circuit has a finite input impedance, a non-zero output impedance, and a finite gain. A real op-amp has a number of non-ideal features as shown in the diagram, but here a simplified schematic notation is used, many details such as device selection and power supply connections are not shown. Operational amplifiers are optimised for use with negative feedback, and this article discusses only negative-feedback applications. When positive feedback is required, a comparator is usually more appropriate. See Comparator applications for further information.



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparator - a device that compares two voltages or currents and outputs a digital signal indicating which is larger. It has two analog input terminals and one binary digital output. A comparator consists of a specialized high-gain differential amplifier. They are commonly used in devices that measure and digitize analog signals, such as analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), as well as relaxation oscillators.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparator_applications - closely related to operational amplifiers, but a comparator is designed to operate with positive feedback and with its output saturated at one power rail or the other. An op-amp can be pressed into service as a poorly performing comparator if necessary, but its slew rate will be impaired.

Logic



  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_completeness - means that every possible logic gate can be realized as a network of gates of the types prescribed by the set. In particular, all logic gates can be assembled from either only binary NAND gates, or only binary NOR gates.



Actuator

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator - a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover". An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. The control signal is relatively low energy and may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even human power. Its main energy source may be an electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds by converting the signal's energy into mechanical motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_actuator - an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in machine tools and industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders inherently produce linear motion. Many other mechanisms are used to generate linear motion from a rotating motor.

Filters


Analog electronics





  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-mode_signal - the component of an analog signal which is present with one sign on all considered conductors. In telecommunication, common-mode signal on a transmission line is known as longitudinal voltage. In electronics where the signal is transferred by differential voltage, the common-mode signal is a half-sum of voltages. When referenced to the local common or ground, a common-mode signal appears on both lines of a two-wire cable, in-phase and with equal amplitudes. Technically, a common-mode voltage is one-half the vector sum of the voltages from each conductor of a balanced circuit to local ground or common. Such signals can arise from one or more of the following sources: Radiated signals coupled equally to both lines, An offset from signal common created in the driver circuit, or A ground differential between the transmitting and receiving locations.

Noise induced into a cable, or transmitted from a cable usually occurs in the common mode; i.e. the same signal tends to be picked up by both conductors in a two wire cable. Likewise, RF noise transmitted from a cable tends to emanate from both conductors. Elimination of common mode signals on cables entering or leaving electronic equipment is important to ensure electromagnetic compatibility. Unless the intention is to transmit or receive radio signals, an electronic designer will generally design electronic circuits to minimise or eliminate common mode effects.

Digital





Logics

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_family - may refer to one of two related concepts. A logic family of monolithic digital integrated circuit devices is a group of electronic logic gates constructed using one of several different designs, usually with compatible logic levels and power supply characteristics within a family. Many logic families were produced as individual components, each containing one or a few related basic logical functions, which could be used as "building-blocks" to create systems or as so-called "glue" to interconnect more complex integrated circuits. A "logic family" may also refer to a set of techniques used to implement logic within VLSI integrated circuits such as central processors, memories, or other complex functions. Some such logic families use static techniques to minimize design complexity. Other such logic families, such as domino logic, use clocked dynamic techniques to minimize size, power consumption and delay.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7400_series - of transistor–transistor logic (TTL) integrated circuits are the most popular family of TTL integrated circuit logic. Quickly replacing diode–transistor logic, it was used to build the mini and mainframe computers of the 1960s and 1970s. Several generations of pin-compatible descendants of the original family have since become de facto standard electronic components.




Signal

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal - as referred to in communication systems, signal processing, and electrical engineering is a function that "conveys information about the behaviour or attributes of some phenomenon". In the physical world, any quantity exhibiting variation in time or variation in space (such as an image) is potentially a signal that might provide information on the status of a physical system, or convey a message between observers, among other possibilities. The IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing states that the term "signal" includes audio, video, speech, image, communication, geophysical, sonar, radar, medical and musical signals.

In nature, signals can take the form of any action by one organism able to be perceived by other organisms, ranging from the release of chemicals by plants to alert nearby plants of the same type of a predator, to sounds or motions made by animals to alert other animals of the presence of danger or of food. Signaling occurs in organisms all the way down to the cellular level, with cell signaling. Signaling theory, in evolutionary biology, proposes that a substantial driver for evolution is the ability for animals to communicate with each other by developing ways of signaling. In human engineering, signals are typically provided by a sensor, and often the original form of a signal is converted to another form of energy using a transducer. For example, a microphone converts an acoustic signal to a voltage waveform, and a speaker does the reverse.

Engineering disciplines such as electrical engineering have led the way in the design, study, and implementation of systems involving transmission, storage, and manipulation of information. In the latter half of the 20th century, electrical engineering itself separated into several disciplines, specialising in the design and analysis of systems that manipulate physical signals; electronic engineering and computer engineering as examples; while design engineering developed to deal with functional design of man–machine interfaces.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_(telecommunications) - has the following meanings: the use of signals for controlling communications, the information exchange concerning the establishment and control of a telecommunication circuit and the management of the network, in contrast to manual setup of circuits by users or administrators, the sending of a signal from the transmitting end of a telecommunication circuit to inform a user at the receiving end that a message is to be sent.

DSP


Integrated circuits

See also Computer#Single-board microcontroller




  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller - PLC), or programmable controller is an industrial digital computer which has been ruggedised and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any activity that requires high reliability control and ease of programming and process fault diagnosis.

They were first developed in the automobile industry to provide flexible, ruggedised and easily programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relays and timers. Since then they have been widely adopted as high-reliability automation controllers suitable for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of a "hard" real-time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration - the process of creating an integrated circuit by combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed. The microprocessor is a VLSI device. Before the introduction of VLSI technology most ICs had a limited set of functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI lets IC makers add all of these into one chip.



Design

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_design_automation - a category of software tools for designing electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and integrated circuits. The tools work together in a design flow that chip designers use to design and analyze entire semiconductor chips. EDA is also referred to as electronic computer-aided design (ECAD).
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_flow_(EDA) - the explicit combination of electronic design automation tools to accomplish the design of an integrated circuit. Moore's law has driven the entire IC implementation RTL to GDSII design flows from one which uses primarily stand-alone synthesis, placement, and routing algorithms to an integrated construction and analysis flows for design closure. The challenges of rising interconnect delay led to a new way of thinking about and integrating design closure tools.


  • Open Collector - carries listings and news for free EDA software and circuit designs. Open Collector supports gEDA.

to sort

TinyCAD

gEDA

  • gEDA project has produced and continues working on a full GPL'd suite and toolkit of Electronic Design Automation tools. These tools are used for electrical circuit design, schematic capture, simulation, prototyping, and production. Currently, the gEDA project offers a mature suite of free software applications for electronics design, including schematic capture, attribute management, bill of materials (BOM) generation, netlisting into over 20 netlist formats, analog and digital simulation, and printed circuit board (PCB) layout. The gEDA project was started because of the lack of free EDA tools for POSIX systems with the primary purpose of advancing the state of free hardware or open source hardware. The suite is mainly being developed on the GNU/Linux platform with some development effort going into making sure the tools run on other platforms as well.

XCircuit

  • XCircuit - a UNIX/X11 (and Windows, or Windows using Cygwin and the Cygwin X-Server) program for drawing publishable-quality electrical circuit schematic diagrams and related figures, and produce circuit netlists through schematic capture. XCircuit regards circuits as inherently hierarchical, and writes both hierarchical PostScript output and hierarchical SPICE netlists. Circuit components are saved in and retrieved from libraries which are fully editable. XCircuit does not separate artistic expression from circuit drawing; it maintains flexiblity in style without compromising the power of schematic capture. XCircuit is flexible enough to be used as a generic program for drawing just about anything, and is competitive with powerful programs such as "xfig". It is especially good for any task requiring repeated use of a standard set of graphical objects, including architectural drawing, printed circuit board layouts, and (my personal favorite) music typography (see my Music Page for examples).

FreePCB

  • FreePCB - a free, open-source PCB editor for Microsoft Windows, released under the GNU General Public License. It was designed to be easy to learn and easy to use, yet capable of professional-quality work.


KiCad EDA

  • KiCad EDA - A Cross Platform and Open Source Electronics Design Automation Suite [12]

EasyEDA

Yosys

  • Yosys Open SYnthesis Suite - a framework for Verilog RTL synthesis. It currently has extensive Verilog-2005 support and provides a basic set of synthesis algorithms for various application domains. Yosys can be adapted to perform any synthesis job by combining the existing passes (algorithms) using synthesis scripts and adding additional passes as needed by extending the Yosys C++ code base. Yosys is free software licensed under the ISC license (a GPL compatible license that is similar in terms to the MIT license or the 2-clause BSD license).

Services

EveryCircuit

  • EveryCircuit - You can build and simulate circuits right on your phone or tablet, animate and understand how they work, check homework and test your designs. Best of all, you can join and interact with EveryCircuit's large online community of fellow circuit enthusiasts.

CircuitBee

  • CircuitBee provides a platform for you to share live versions of your circuit schematics on your websites, blogs or forums.

CircuitLab

  • CircuitLab - Build and simulate circuits right in your browser. Design with our easy-to-use schematic editor. Analog & digital circuit simulations in seconds. Professional schematic PDFs, wiring diagrams, and plots. No installation required! Launch it instantly with one click.

upverter

  • upverter - Create hardware better, faster. Design open source and private projects as a team. Draw schematics, layout PCBs and review designs together.

Scheme-it

cadsoft

Simulation


  • Qucs - Quite Universal Circuit Simulator, an integrated circuit simulator which means you are able to setup a circuit with a graphical user interface (GUI) and simulate the large-signal, small-signal and noise behaviour of the circuit. After that simulation has finished you can view the simulation results on a presentation page or window.


  • spicesound - Simulating Analog Audio Cicuits, an extension to ngspice that provides a libsndfile voltage source and the possibility to write ngspice's output in audio-file format. Ngspice is a mixed-level/mixed-signal circuit simulator, based on Berkeley Spice3F5 and developed openly as ngspice sourceforge project. Libsndfile is a C library for reading and writing files containing sampled sound; released in source code format under the GNU Lesser General Public License.



HDL

PCB



Circuit printers

Connectors and cable





Wire


Enclosure

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_enclosure - a cabinet for electrical or electronic equipment to mount switches, knobs and displays and to prevent electrical shock to equipment users and protect the contents from the environment. The enclosure is the only part of the equipment which is seen by users; in many cases it is designed not only for its utilitarian requirements, but also to be pleasing to the eye. Regulations may dictate the features and performance of enclosures for electrical equipment in hazardous areas, such as petrochemical plants or coal mines. Electronic packaging may place many demands on an enclosure for heat dissipation, radio frequency interference and electrostatic discharge protection, as well as functional, esthetic and commercial constraints.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Code - International Protection Marking, IEC standard 60529, sometimes interpreted as Ingress Protection Marking, classifies and rates the degree of protection provided against intrusion (body parts such as hands and fingers), dust, accidental contact, and water by mechanical casings and electrical enclosures. It is published by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The equivalent European standard is EN 60529.

The standard aims to provide users more detailed information than vague marketing terms such as waterproof. The first digit indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against access to hazardous parts (e.g., electrical conductors, moving parts) and the ingress of solid foreign objects. The second digit indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against harmful ingress of water. The ratings for water ingress are not cumulative beyond IPX6. A device which is compliant with IPX7, covering immersion in water, need not be compliant with IPX5 or IPX6, covering exposure to water jets. A device which meets both tests is indicated by listing both tests separated by a slash, e.g. IPX5/IPX7.Similarly, an electrical socket rated IP22 is protected against insertion of fingers and will not be damaged or become unsafe during a specified test in which it is exposed to vertically or nearly vertically dripping water. IP22 or IP2X are typical minimum requirements for the design of electrical accessories for indoor use.


  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEMA_enclosure_types - defines standards used in North America for various grades of electrical enclosures typically used in industrial applications. Each is rated to protect against personal access to hazardous parts, and additional type-dependent designated environmental conditions. A typical NEMA enclosure might be rated to provide protection against environmental hazards such as water, dust, oil or coolant or atmospheres containing corrosive agents such as acetylene or gasoline. A full list of NEMA enclosure types is available from the NEMA website.


12/24v system






"Leisure batteries differ in construction from vehicle starter batteries because they are designed for different jobs, and consequently require a different charging regime.

"Fixed voltage battery chargers won't achieve full re-charging of a leisure battery because the lead plates are thicker, so charging has to take place in controlled stages with the voltage level being automatically adjusted throughout to ensure full charge absoprtion. This is where dedicated multi-stage or 'intelligent' chargers need to be used to ensure your battery receives a full, deep charge and its serviceable lifetime is maximised.

"As a rule of the thumb the charger output current should be around 10-15% of your battery's Ah capacity."

  • Capacitor

"you'll find that the spec says you need a BIG electrolytic cap across your battery, you don't need one for a portable system; it is recommended because class D amplifiers can backfeed current. Deep Cycle batteries cope with this; the capacitor is for car setups where the deep cycle battery for the amp is split charged and is only there to run the system full blast for an hour without the engine running."

Projects





Electrical engineering

See also Computing, etc.



Tutorials


  • Hackster.io gives professionals and hobbyists the resources they need to build hardware, the easy way.
  • EEVblog Electronics Resource Wiki - This resource site contains useful links and information related to all aspects of Electronics Engineering and associated electronics design.


  • Basic Electronics Tutorials provides students and beginners alike studying Electronics a good Basic Electronics Tutorials and information to help develop a knowledge and understanding of the subject of Electronics.


Safety



Shopping




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